piero della Francesca and the legend of the true cross
Introduction
The Legend of the True Cross is a monumental cycle of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in de Basilica of San Francesco in Arezzo. It is considered one of the early renaissance masterpieces and it is Piero’s largest work.
The cycle is based on the story as we can read it in the Golden Legend, a popular 13th century book on the lives of the saints by Jacopo da Voragine. This book was of great importance and of great inspiration for many works of art.
The history of the cycle in Arezzo starts in 1408, when an Arentine family named Bacci acquires the rights of patronage for the so called Capella Maggiore. By acquiring these rights, they commit themselves in decorating the chapel.
It was not, however, until 1447 that the decoration of the chapel started. The Bacci hired the Florentine painter Bicci di Lorenzo to decorate the chapel. He painted a Last Judgement, some churchfathers and the four evangelists in the ceiling. After that he quitted because of his high age.
The Bacci now hired Piero della Francesca to complete the project. It is not known, however, when he started and when he finished the cycle. Documents state that he probably started around 1447 or 1448 and finished at the latest in 1466. It is possible, however, the cycle was completed earlier.
This is only one question remaining unanswered. In the last few decades an interesting debate has evolved around the meaning of the cycle. Some see a hidden agenda in the cycle, propagating a new crusade against the Turks. Others say the cycle is a representation of courtly values and chivalry themes. The last group states we have to see this cycle as purely religious.
We can now ask the question: what is the most plausible meaning? Exactly that question I will try to answer.
The Legend of the True Cross is a monumental cycle of frescoes painted by Piero della Francesca in de Basilica of San Francesco in Arezzo. It is considered one of the early renaissance masterpieces and it is Piero’s largest work.
The cycle is based on the story as we can read it in the Golden Legend, a popular 13th century book on the lives of the saints by Jacopo da Voragine. This book was of great importance and of great inspiration for many works of art.
The history of the cycle in Arezzo starts in 1408, when an Arentine family named Bacci acquires the rights of patronage for the so called Capella Maggiore. By acquiring these rights, they commit themselves in decorating the chapel.
It was not, however, until 1447 that the decoration of the chapel started. The Bacci hired the Florentine painter Bicci di Lorenzo to decorate the chapel. He painted a Last Judgement, some churchfathers and the four evangelists in the ceiling. After that he quitted because of his high age.
The Bacci now hired Piero della Francesca to complete the project. It is not known, however, when he started and when he finished the cycle. Documents state that he probably started around 1447 or 1448 and finished at the latest in 1466. It is possible, however, the cycle was completed earlier.
This is only one question remaining unanswered. In the last few decades an interesting debate has evolved around the meaning of the cycle. Some see a hidden agenda in the cycle, propagating a new crusade against the Turks. Others say the cycle is a representation of courtly values and chivalry themes. The last group states we have to see this cycle as purely religious.
We can now ask the question: what is the most plausible meaning? Exactly that question I will try to answer.
The Story of the True Cross
The story starts with the death of Adam (image 1). According to the legend, Adam’s son Seth went to the gates of paradise where the archangel Michael appeared to him. He gave Seth a branch from the tree under which Adam committed his sin. He planted the branch over Adam’s grave where it would grow to be a great tree. The tree was still standing in Solomon’s time and he admired beauty of the tree so much, he had it cut down to be used in building. The wood, however, was unmanageable and Solomon then used it as a bridge. When the queen of Sheba came to speak with Solomon, she immediately saw the holiness of the wood, she saw that the Savior of the world one day would hang upon it. She then sent word to Solomon (image 2). Solomon, therefore, had the unmanageable wood buried (image 3). Many years later, Constantine had a dream. He saw the sign of the cross formed in flaming light. An angel appeared to him and said: “in this sign you will conquer” (image 4). The next day, Constantine carried a gold cross in his right hand. He and his forces drew up to the river. There Maxentius rushed upon them but before he could do any harm, he drowned in the depths of the river he was trying to cross. Constantine was victorious (image 5). Now Constantine send his mother Helena to Jerusalem, where she’ll try to find the holy cross. Only the Jew Judas knew where the cross was buried but he refused to tell. Therefore Helena had him thrown into a dry well to make him suffer. At the seventh day he was pulled out of the well and finally told where the burial site was. (image 6) At the burial site, three crosses where found, one of the Lord himself, two of the thieves. There was no way of distinguishing Christ’s cross from those of the thieves and therefore they were places in the citycenter. When the lifeless body of a young man was being carried past, Judas halted them. The first two crosses where held over the body, but nothing happened. When the held the third cross over the body, the dead man came back to life. The True Cross was now discovered. (image 7) Many years later, Chosroes, king of the Persians, invaded Jerusalem and took the Holy Cross with him. He wanted to be a god himself and settled himself in a tower made of gold, silver and gems. He sat on a throne as the Father, he put the wood of the cross on his right in place of the Son, and on his left there was a cock representing the Holy Spirit. |
Emperor Heraclius now got together a large army to defeat Chosroes and retrieve the Holy Cross. In a battle he defeated Chosroes son and then journeyed to Chosroes. Heraclius gave him a choice: accept the Christian faith or die. Chosroes refused to accept the Christian faith and was decapitated (image 8).
Now Heraclius carried the holy cross back to Jerusalem. He stripped down to his shirt and walked on bare feet’s to the gate, humbly carrying the cross. (image 9) And so the Legend of the True Cross ends. Besides these images, which Piero della Francesca painted quite correctly after the story as told by the Golden Legend, we can also see an Annunciation (image 10). This scene is present because of an indulgence given by pope Nicholas IV in 1290 to the church of San Francesco. Praying in the chapel on the day of the Annunciation, march 25, shall give a reduction of 40 days in purgatory. The scenes are also theologically connected. Both the virgin Mary and the Holy Cross play an important role in the salvation history. They are connected by the death of Christ. The diagram of the chapel (image 11) gives a further explanation on how we have to read the scenes in the chapel. If you like to see the chapel up close, please visit http://projects.ias.edu/pierotruecross/ for a detailed online 3D walkthrough model. (Internet Explorer only) |
Three theories: what does the cycle actually means?
Now we know the Legend of the True Cross. The question that remains now is: what does the cycle means?
For the first theory, we have to go back to 1438/39, when the council of Ferrara and Florence were held. Reunification of the eastern and western Christian churches was high on the agenda. Besides that, the Byzantine Empire sought help in the west against the Ottoman threat. This was so important for the Byzantine Empire that even emperor John VIII Palaeologus attended the council. Agreements where made and the council was a success. Yet, the Byzantine Empire ceased to exist in 1453 when the Ottomans finally captured Constantinople. The Christian world was in panic, with the Ottomans so close.
Pope Nicholas V issued a bull of crusade. The entire western world was called upon, the pagan threat in the east had to be stopped. Strangely enough, the papal bull was ignored by most countries. They were too busy with internal problems or problems on European level. Some city states like Venice and Genoa even sought friendship with the Ottomans so they could increase trading revenues.
Even more strange is the fact the pope didn’t seem to care. He issued the bull of crusade but it looks like he preferred the peaceful way. After many decades of struggle between papal supremacy and the council of bishops, Nicholas V was the first pope in a long time who actually restored the papal supremacy. It seems like he used his neutrality and struggle for peace to consolidate papal supremacy. In the meantime, the pope continued rebuilding Rome and he greatly extended the Vatican library. He almost spend 600.000 golddukates on that.
One can ask, if the pope didn’t even care for a crusade, why would the frescoes cycle in Arezzo propagate a crusade? Arezzo was politically of no importance. It was part of the Republic of Florence and the important decisions where made there. Arezzo did not play any role in the council of Ferrara and Florence. And the Bacci, the family who paid for the cycle, where herbs –and spices merchants and acquired there wealth by trading with the Levant. It seems like no one in Arezzo had anything to win with a message propagating a crusade.
Strangely enough, the scene with the Victory of Constantine shows us an interesting detail. The hat Constantine wears, shows extraordinary similarities with the hat emperor John VIII Palaeologus is depicted with on for example some medals made in his honour (image 12). These medals were made during the council of Ferrara and Florence. A few years later Filarete created a bronze door for the St. Peter in Rome where the emperor is depicted with the same hat. Can this be a clue for supporting a crusade?
I think not. Piero della Francesca must have been familiar with the way the emperor was portrayed. On the map we see all the places he has worked until he started painting in Arezzo. He, for instance, went to Florence and also worked in Rome (not on the map). He must have seen the medals and the bronze doors. And what is a better way than portraying a Byzantine emperor like Constantine than by taking a contemporary example?
Now we know the Legend of the True Cross. The question that remains now is: what does the cycle means?
For the first theory, we have to go back to 1438/39, when the council of Ferrara and Florence were held. Reunification of the eastern and western Christian churches was high on the agenda. Besides that, the Byzantine Empire sought help in the west against the Ottoman threat. This was so important for the Byzantine Empire that even emperor John VIII Palaeologus attended the council. Agreements where made and the council was a success. Yet, the Byzantine Empire ceased to exist in 1453 when the Ottomans finally captured Constantinople. The Christian world was in panic, with the Ottomans so close.
Pope Nicholas V issued a bull of crusade. The entire western world was called upon, the pagan threat in the east had to be stopped. Strangely enough, the papal bull was ignored by most countries. They were too busy with internal problems or problems on European level. Some city states like Venice and Genoa even sought friendship with the Ottomans so they could increase trading revenues.
Even more strange is the fact the pope didn’t seem to care. He issued the bull of crusade but it looks like he preferred the peaceful way. After many decades of struggle between papal supremacy and the council of bishops, Nicholas V was the first pope in a long time who actually restored the papal supremacy. It seems like he used his neutrality and struggle for peace to consolidate papal supremacy. In the meantime, the pope continued rebuilding Rome and he greatly extended the Vatican library. He almost spend 600.000 golddukates on that.
One can ask, if the pope didn’t even care for a crusade, why would the frescoes cycle in Arezzo propagate a crusade? Arezzo was politically of no importance. It was part of the Republic of Florence and the important decisions where made there. Arezzo did not play any role in the council of Ferrara and Florence. And the Bacci, the family who paid for the cycle, where herbs –and spices merchants and acquired there wealth by trading with the Levant. It seems like no one in Arezzo had anything to win with a message propagating a crusade.
Strangely enough, the scene with the Victory of Constantine shows us an interesting detail. The hat Constantine wears, shows extraordinary similarities with the hat emperor John VIII Palaeologus is depicted with on for example some medals made in his honour (image 12). These medals were made during the council of Ferrara and Florence. A few years later Filarete created a bronze door for the St. Peter in Rome where the emperor is depicted with the same hat. Can this be a clue for supporting a crusade?
I think not. Piero della Francesca must have been familiar with the way the emperor was portrayed. On the map we see all the places he has worked until he started painting in Arezzo. He, for instance, went to Florence and also worked in Rome (not on the map). He must have seen the medals and the bronze doors. And what is a better way than portraying a Byzantine emperor like Constantine than by taking a contemporary example?
As we can see on the map, Piero has worked in many different cities
before he went to Arezzo. Cities in yellow are cities with a court. In his
hometown Sansepolcro (red on the map), he got to know Sienese painters. He went
to Florence where he saw the Legend of the True Cross by Agnolo Gaddi in the
Santa Croce in Florence (image 14). This cycle with the same theme as in Arezzo
was of great inspiration to Piero. After Florence, Piero went to Ferrara where
he did some work for the duke. After his stay in Ferrara, he left for Rimini,
Ancono, Pesara and Bologna where he created several paintings. After that he
left for Rome where the papal court had a large assignment for him. From Rome
he returns to Sansepolcro. While staying in Sansepolcro, the Bacci hired him to
finish the Capella Maggiore in Arezzo. During or after his workperiod in
Arezzo, Piero also worked for the court of Urbino.
As we can see, Piero had quite the network. He travelled to many towns where he met many colleague artists and saw a lot of their work. In his life he got greatly influences by everything he saw. We have to keep this in mind when we study the frescoes in Arezzo and see courtly values and chivalry themes in it.
Are these themes really represented in Piero’s work? Some say the highly ceremonial setting in which the scene with Solomon and Sheba takes place, is exemplary for Italian courtly values. Also the two battles show this theme. The knights who fight with pride for their country, holding their banners high and defeating the enemy, the infidel, stand for highly cherished chivalry values.
Or did Piero just depict these scenes this way so one could understand what they mean? If we can see courtly values en chivalry themes in the cycle, it is secondary. It is nog the primary meaning of the work. Piero just took contemporary images to depict the story of the True Cross. Why did he do that? Because people can recognize it, because they are familiar with it. The way Piero depicted the several scenes is just because it gives the scenes its strength, its meaning.
The last question remaining is the following: what does the cycle actually means? I think we have to see it as purely religious and we have to put the cycle inside the Franciscan network. The cycle is situated in a Franciscan church and as we have seen that is not an exception. Also in Florence we can see the legend of the True Cross, painted in fresco in the Capella Maggiore of the Santa Croce, one of the most important Franciscan churches in Italy.
The Legend of the True Cross was for the Franciscans quite important. Saint Bonaventura made in his writings the connection between the stigmatisation of Saint Francis and the death of Christ on the cross. Francis himself is a key figure in human history, just like Christ. They are united by the Holy Cross. Because of this connection, the Franciscan order was the protector of all sacred places connected to the cross, including those in Jerusalem.
And there are even more connections between the Franciscan order and the Holy Cross. Saint Francis received his stigmata’s on September 14th. On the same date, the exaltation of the Holy Cross is celebrated. According to the legend, it is also the date emperor Heraclius brought back the cross to Jerusalem and the very same day on which the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was consecrated. Also March 25th plays an important role. This is not only the day of the Annunciations, Adam and Christ also died on this day.
As we now can see, the Legend of the True Cross, is intensely connected to the Franciscan order. The cycle in Arezzo fits perfectly within the orders theology and meaning. The cycle fits within a broader religious network, within a network of pilgrimage (Indulgence by pope Nicholas IV) and within the religious life of Arezzo. The cycle represents the salvation plan. Every other detail is secondary or non-existing.
In conclusion, I now can say we have to see the cycle in Arezzo in a purely religious context.
M.B.
As we can see, Piero had quite the network. He travelled to many towns where he met many colleague artists and saw a lot of their work. In his life he got greatly influences by everything he saw. We have to keep this in mind when we study the frescoes in Arezzo and see courtly values and chivalry themes in it.
Are these themes really represented in Piero’s work? Some say the highly ceremonial setting in which the scene with Solomon and Sheba takes place, is exemplary for Italian courtly values. Also the two battles show this theme. The knights who fight with pride for their country, holding their banners high and defeating the enemy, the infidel, stand for highly cherished chivalry values.
Or did Piero just depict these scenes this way so one could understand what they mean? If we can see courtly values en chivalry themes in the cycle, it is secondary. It is nog the primary meaning of the work. Piero just took contemporary images to depict the story of the True Cross. Why did he do that? Because people can recognize it, because they are familiar with it. The way Piero depicted the several scenes is just because it gives the scenes its strength, its meaning.
The last question remaining is the following: what does the cycle actually means? I think we have to see it as purely religious and we have to put the cycle inside the Franciscan network. The cycle is situated in a Franciscan church and as we have seen that is not an exception. Also in Florence we can see the legend of the True Cross, painted in fresco in the Capella Maggiore of the Santa Croce, one of the most important Franciscan churches in Italy.
The Legend of the True Cross was for the Franciscans quite important. Saint Bonaventura made in his writings the connection between the stigmatisation of Saint Francis and the death of Christ on the cross. Francis himself is a key figure in human history, just like Christ. They are united by the Holy Cross. Because of this connection, the Franciscan order was the protector of all sacred places connected to the cross, including those in Jerusalem.
And there are even more connections between the Franciscan order and the Holy Cross. Saint Francis received his stigmata’s on September 14th. On the same date, the exaltation of the Holy Cross is celebrated. According to the legend, it is also the date emperor Heraclius brought back the cross to Jerusalem and the very same day on which the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was consecrated. Also March 25th plays an important role. This is not only the day of the Annunciations, Adam and Christ also died on this day.
As we now can see, the Legend of the True Cross, is intensely connected to the Franciscan order. The cycle in Arezzo fits perfectly within the orders theology and meaning. The cycle fits within a broader religious network, within a network of pilgrimage (Indulgence by pope Nicholas IV) and within the religious life of Arezzo. The cycle represents the salvation plan. Every other detail is secondary or non-existing.
In conclusion, I now can say we have to see the cycle in Arezzo in a purely religious context.
M.B.
Literature
Marilyn Aronberg Lavin, ‘the Legend of the True Cross Cycle, An Introduction’, in: Piero della Francesca, New York (1994), pp. 7-31 Eve Borsook, The Mural Painters of Tuscany. From Cimabue to Andrea del Sarto, Oxford (1980) Stephen J. Campbell en Michael W. Cole, A New History of Italian Renaissance Art, Londen (2012), pp. 202-231 Carlo Ginzburg, Erkundungen über Piero, Berlijn (1985) pp. 39-71 James Hall, Hall’s Iconografisch Handboek – onderwerpen, symbolen en motieven in de beeldende kunst, Leiden (1992) Stuart M. McManus, Byzantines in the Florentine polis: Ideology, Statecraft and Ritual during the Council of Florence, in: Journal of the Oxford University History Society (2009) pp. 1-22 Steffi Roettgen, Wandmalerei der Frührenaissance in Italien 1400-1470, München (1996), pp. 224-253, 452, 455 Nancy M. Thompson, “The Franciscans and the True Cross: The Decoration of the Cappella Maggiore of Santa Croce”, in: Gesta, Vol. 43, No. 1 (2004), pp. 61-79 John B. Toews, Formative Forces in the Pontificate of Nicholas V, 1447-1455, in: The Catholic Historical Review, Vol. 54, No. 2 (Jul., 1968), pp. 261-284 Jacobus de Voragine, ‘the finding of the holy cross’ in: The Golden Legend – Readings on the Saints volume I, pp. 277-283 and ‘the exaltation of the holy cross’ in: The Golden Legend – Readings on the Saints volume II, pp. 168-172, translated by: William Granger Ryan, Princeton University Press (1993) Aby Warburg, Piero della Francscas Konstantinsschlacht in der Aquarellkopie des J.A. Ramboux (1912) in: Gesammelte Schriften, Leipzig/Berlin (1932) |
Images
Images 1-10, 13: http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storie_della_Vera_Croce (public domain) Image 11: Marilyn Aronberg Lavin, ‘the Legend of the True Cross Cycle, An Introduction’, in: Piero della Francesca, New York (1994), p. 16 Image 12: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medal_of_John_VIII_Palaeologus (public domain) Image 14: http://www.poderesantapia.com/art/agnologaddi/leggendadellacroce.htm |